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За три года собаку породы Border Colly не только научили различать 1022 (тысячу двадцать два) слова-объекта, но и трем категориям, к которым эти объекты относятся. А я думал, что два десятка слов моя Дуська выучила - большое достижение. Все равно ее люблю больше, чем чужую собаку. Пусть даже и не такую умную.

Four experiments investigated the ability of a border collie (Chaser) to acquire receptive language skills. Experiment 1 demonstrated that Chaser learned and retained, over a 3-year period of intensive training, the proper-noun names of 1022 objects. Experiment 2 presented random pair-wise combinations of three commands and three names, and demonstrated that she understood the separate meanings of proper-noun names and commands. Chaser understood that names refer to objects, independent of the behavior directed toward those objects. Experiment 3 demonstrated Chaser's ability to learn three common nouns – words that represent categories. Chaser demonstrated one-to-many (common noun) and many-to-one (multiple-name) name–object mappings. Experiment 4 demonstrated Chaser's ability to learn words by inferential reasoning by exclusion – inferring the name of an object based on its novelty among familiar objects that already had names. Together, these studies indicate that Chaser acquired referential understanding of nouns, an ability normally attributed to children, which included: (a) awareness that words may refer to objects, (b) awareness of verbal cues that map words upon the object referent, and (c) awareness that names may refer to unique objects or categories of objects, independent of the behaviors directed toward those objects.

doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2010.11.007
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На днях набрел на работу венгерских психологов об экспериментах с собаками и двух-трехлетними детьми. Эксперимент очень простой, его легко провести даже в домашних условиях. Задача в том, чтобы сравнить, как быстро дети/собаки учатся реагировать на показывание пальцем, локтем, ногой, и коленом.

Оказывается, что и собаки, и дети прекрасно понимают, что надо смотреть не на палец, а на то, на что он показывает. С ногой то же самое. А вот с показыванием коленом у трехлеток нет проблем, но двухлетки и собаки часто не понимают, чего от них хотят. В любом случае, уже к трехлетнему возрасту ребенок совершенно четко разбирается в общепринятых жестах. Поэтому при обучении может быть полезно подкреплять слова соответствуюшими телодвижениями.

Результат, конечно, тривиальный, но чем-то он мне запомнился. Я не понимал чем, пока не встретил у [livejournal.com profile] ivanov_petrov вот такую метафору:

Есть разница в умениях. Ученик 20 лет учится тому, чтобы - когда ему показывают пальцем - смотреть не на палец, а на то. на что он указывает. Это талантливый ученик, неталантиливый не нраучается. Учитель же 20 лет учится тому, чтобы научать ученика смотреть не на палец, когда ему указывают на что-то.


Метафора воспринимается как "правда" на каком-то подкожном уровне. Несмотря на всю ее абсурдность, хочется ей верить. Что-то там сидит в мозгах с младенческого возраста, что отбрасывает факты и подтверждает обобщеную логику примера. Что?

Lakatos G., et al. (2009) A comparative approach to dogs' (Canis familiaris) and human infants' comprehension of various forms of pointing gestures. Animal Cognition (in press). DOI: 10.1007/s10071-009-0221-4.
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У детей с двухлетнего возраста наблюдается способность компенсировать количество съеденного в течение дня. Например, если ребенок съел много в обед, он съест поменьше в ужин.

Но когда дети попадают в среду, где им в любое время доступна разнообразная сладко-жирная еда, то к 5-6 годам эта способность пропадает. Мозг разучается компенсировать. Вернее, мозг научается (есть такое слово?) реагировать на стимулы, связанные со сладостями. Так вырастают толстые американские ребятишки и взрослые.
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возвращаясь к теме

Интересно, все-таки, как в мозгах у персонажа [livejournal.com profile] tema происходит переключение контекста восприятия (construal)?

С одной стороны, сообщества физических инвалидов он считает oткровенно омерзительными, но, с другой стороны, сообщество художников-дизайнеров, одним из которых сам руководит, признает полезным для общества.

Ведь дизайнеров, в контексте рекламного бизнеса, тоже можно считать инвалидами. Рисовать умеют, а продавать - нет. Типичные инвалиды по бизнесу. Поэтому они объединяются в сообщество, называют себя, например, "Студия Авросима Петухова", и дают свои работы самому не-инвалиду по продажам, чтобы он охмурял заказчиков. И общаются, конечно, между собой и другими не-дизайнерами, насколько им эта бизнес-инвалидность позволяет.

Есть ли в мозгу какие-то CLT переключатели, или все происходит за счет постепенной потери способности образовывать новые нейронные связи? контекст-инвалидность?
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Читал главу Creativity в книге Gerald M. Edelman "Second nature", о его модели работы мозга. Делал выписки, думал, потом решил отдохнуть, отложил книжку и залез в ЖЖ. И тут же в френдленте вижу Лена Элтанг [livejournal.com profile] nutlet пишет:
бывают люди неотвязные будто ангина, после их ухода становится прохладно и на языке свинцовый привкус, бывают жаркие и быстрые как прилив крови к голове – после них тело липкое и перед глазами танцуют цветные полосы, бывают люди, поговорив с которыми, хочешь закрыть глаза, сесть по-турецки и долго раскачиваться из стороны в сторону.
одна моя подруга была похожа на корь – от нее у меня слезились глаза и поднималась температура, один мой виртуальный знакомый похож на тревожный просвет в облаках, другой похож на совершенного читателя, но это наверняка неправда, третий же пишет о чужих книгах, как о немытых упрямых сожителях, и похож на лилового замученного быка на деревенской корриде


Ведь лучшей иллюстрации к книге Эдельмана просто не придумаешь!

p.s. про Эдельмана я узнал в журнале [livejournal.com profile] nature_wonder.
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An article in NewYorker on perception:
The account of perception that’s starting to emerge is what we might call the “brain’s best guess” theory of perception: perception is the brain’s best guess about what is happening in the outside world. The mind integrates scattered, weak, rudimentary signals from a variety of sensory channels, information from past experiences, and hard-wired processes, and produces a sensory experience full of brain-provided color, sound, texture, and meaning. We see a friendly yellow Labrador bounding behind a picket fence not because that is the transmission we receive but because this is the perception our weaver-brain assembles as its best hypothesis of what is out there from the slivers of information we get. Perception is inference.
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In a series of elegant experiments, starting in the early 1980s, Nottebohm and his colleagues
showed that , indeed, thousands of new neurons are added every day to the avian brain. They did so by, first, showing the production of new cells with thymidine labelling42; second, producing ultrastructural evidence that the new cells were neurons receiving synapses43; and last, in a technical tour de force, showing that the putative neurons responded to sound with action potentials44.In subsequent studies, they showed that the
axons of new neurons extended over long distances, that neuronal birth and death proceeded in parallel, that in both singing and nonsinging species neurogenesis was widespread throughout the avian forebrain — including
the hippocampus — and that in the latter structure it was modulated by environmental complexity and learning experience39–47. Charles G. Gross. Neurogenesis in the adult brain: death of a dogma. Science. Volume 1. Oct. 2000. http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v1/n1/pdf/nrn1000_067a.pdf


adult birds shed and grow neurons on a regular basis. human brain does it too, but to a lesser degree. I wonder if the future of AI lies in the ability to add and drop intelligence at will. or more precise, to regulate the amount of intelligence (what is intelligence?) depending on the task.

in addition to that, it would be interesting to consider brain as intelligent infrastructure that solves problems while running signals from detection to execution or storage units. what is the role of prototypes?
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[Daniel] Weissman [of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor] asked volunteers to spend a tedious hour in a functional-MRI brain scanner, identifying letters that flashed on a screen. At times, their reactions slowed, showing that attention was wavering. During these lapses, communication between regions related to self-control, vision and language processing died down. "Attention failed to grease the connections in the brain," says Weissman.


There must be a control structure in the brain that orchestrates high-level communications. It's quite possible that meditation is the type of activity that thoroughly engages this structure. We could hypothesize that brain is an association of distributed specialized and generic "thinkets", which are assembled and disassembled by the mind[?], depending on the task at hand.
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Iain McGregor and colleagues from the University of Sydney, Australia, found that rats would stop reacting to the smell of a cat that they had been exposed to repeatedly. Yet when they sniffed a new cat, the rats bolted back into their burrows and became extra vigilant.

Dissecting the rats' brains showed that the part that responds to cat pheromones became less active the more familiar they became with each cat. However, the brains of rats presented with the odour of a new cat became more active, confirming that the rodents reacted differently to the smells of individual cats (Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, vol 32, p 1209).


Somebody's got to come up with a "new cat" spray.
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Research is revealing that male and female brains are built from markedly different genetic blueprints, which create numerous anatomical differences. There are also differences in the circuitry that wires them up and the chemicals that transmit messages between neurons. All this is pointing towards the conclusion that there is not just one kind of human brain, but two.

In a 2001 study, Jill Goldstein of Harvard Medical School and colleagues measured and compared 45 brain regions in healthy men and women. They found that parts of the frontal lobe, which houses decision-making and problem-solving functions, were proportionally larger in women, as was the limbic cortex, which regulates emotions. Other studies have found that the hippocampus, involved in short-term memory and spatial navigation, is proportionally larger in women than in men, perhaps surprisingly given women's reputation as bad map-readers. In men, proportionally larger areas include the parietal cortex, which processes signals from the sensory organs and is involved in space perception, and the amygdala, which controls emotions and social and sexual behaviour.
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New Scientist: 'Circadian eye' could be key to insomnia
http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14117-circadian-eye-could-be-key-to-insomnia.html

You might call it our circadian eye. A handful of retina cells sense light, not for vision, but instead to reset our body clocks each day. Killing off these cells in mice leaves their sight unharmed, but throws their clocks out of whack, two new studies show.

Jolting these cells back into action might offer salvation to insomniacs, whose circadian cycles are slightly off, says Satchidananda Panda, a molecular biologist at the Salk Institute in San Diego, who led one study. Natural degeneration of these cells could also explain why insomnia often strikes the elderly. Read more... )
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Наука, наконец-то, подтвердила, что недосып превращает человека в жывотное.

http://sciam.com/article.cfm?articleid=CDEFA259-E7F2-99DF-311007C6099FD8A2
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By deliberately scrambling a person's visual and tactile senses, it is now possible to give them an "out-of-body" experience.

Two procedures – which are the first to imitate an out-of-body experience artificially – use cameras to fool people into thinking they are standing or sitting somewhere else in a room. They provide the strongest proof yet that people only imagine floating out of their bodies during surgery or near-death experiences.
New Scientist, Aug 23, 2007.


you tube video explanation... )

Achieving an out of body experience is relatively easy when using auto-training techniques. I've done it many-many times to combat jetlag. It is hard to say why or how the phenomenon works. It might be that my body simply got used to falling asleep after mind-induced "flight simulations" achieved during numerous bedtime exercises. Another explanation would be that the "flight" itself somehow causes sleepiness. Who knows. It looks like, though, that the scientist are getting closer to figuring it out.

The technique they show in the video is very similar to the effect you create in your mind during an auto-training session. That is, you try to invoke or "remember" a perception in your back when it doesn't touch any contiguous surface. Slow swimming is a great preparation for this exercise. The purpose of it is to set up and memorize the feeling of weightlessness in the whole body. You capture the floating sensation, and teach yourself to reproduce it later, practically on demand. Fun stuff.
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Highly emotive incidents trigger the brain to release the hormone and neurotransmitter noradrenaline. This stimulates the amygdala – part of the brain involved with processing emotional reactions – to store memories in the hippocampus and other parts of the brain, says Dominique de Quervain, a neuroscientist at the University of Zurich in Switzerland.

Yet for some reason, recall of emotional events varies a great deal from person to person. So de Quervain wondered if common variations in a gene called ADRA2B, which codes for the noradrenaline receptor, could be responsible. Some 30 per cent of Caucasians and 12 per cent of Africans possess this variant, he says.


A very good gene variation not to have for a soldier.
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Although the difference was slight, high-income children outperformed their less wealthy peers on both IQ tests and an exam designed to replicate achievement in various academic subjects. Lower income kids performed at a lower level than others in reading comprehension and mathematical calculations but were competitive in basic cognition, memory and reading skills, indicating that poverty may affect development at the level where different abilities must be combined, such as verbal skills and memory, in the case of reading comprehension. SciAm, May 18, 2007.


see also Smart Kids Found to Undergo Delayed Brain Development
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a landmark study of healthy brain development has uncovered a number of surprises. Among them is the finding that, whereas childhood is characterized by improvement on tasks of cognitive and motor function, this progress levels off at around age 11 or 12, just prior to adolescence.
Scientific American, May 18, 2007.


Some time ago I saw studies showing that human creativity peaks at the age of 12. It would be interesting to investigate a possible relationship between brain growth and creativity. It could be that the latter is an expression of a still developing cognitive ability.

I would even go out on a limb and say that now we have an opportunity to develop an objective measure for the newly minted SCOTUS' notion of "person of ordinary creativity". Here's how it will work. Each inventor at the patent application filing time has her brain examined, and if a certified agency confirm that the brain bears signs of continuing cognitive improvement, the invention automatically passes the non-obviousness test. We could go even further and, based on aforementioned tests, build a registry of "creative people" whose works would be automatically considered above average. Down with IQ! Long live direct brain scans!
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The increase in attention to unfamiliar events toward the end of the first year, which is now an established fact, implies a maturational change in brain organization and a parallel change in the ability to relate the representations acquired in the past to the present moment. This ability is called working memory. We now know that one component of the maturation involves the establishment of connections between structures in the temporal lobe and the prefrontal cortex.... The more mature brain enables eight-month-olds to hold in a working memory ciruit the schema of the objects they saw moments earlier.
...
A few years latr Nathan Fox and Sally Weiskopf affirmed this conclusion by repeatedly administering twelve problems requiring working memory to eight infants across the period from five to fourteen months of age. The results were beautiful. The robustness of working memory improved most between seven and ten months in each of the eight infants. The evidence from more than a hundred studies in different labs pints to the same conclusion. Sometime between six and ten months infants begin to "think" for the first time because brain sites that were unconnected in the young brain have become connected. The more mature brain permits the infant to find the representations relevant to a current experience and to keep the tow schemata active until they can be combined. If the cannot, the infant turs away. ibid. p. 77.
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The two hemispheres of the brain make differential contributions to perceptual and semantic representations, with the right hemisphere playing more significant role in perceptual structures - scenes, melodies, body sensations - and the left having a bigger role in the semantic forms of words and sentences.
Futrher, the right hemisphere is preferentially activated by events whose features have relatively lower spatial frequences ( coarser features), like the wide eyes and open mouth of a person surprised by a spider. The left hemisphere is activated more fully by events whose elements have higher spatial frequences, like a series of very brief eyeblinks.
Although the left hemisphere is more proficient at separating words in the rapid flow of speech, it needs help from the right hemisphere in interpreting the meanings a speaker intended. ibid. p. 46.


clearly, my right hemisphere is more dominant in this type of tasks
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A fundamental principle governing the brain is that neurons respond to change. Changes in illumination or motion automatically activate circuits and provoke attention to the site of change, for that is where information is likely to reside. A reward, therefore, does not have to be something the animal needs, such as food, water, a mate, or relief from pain. Essintially, many events called "rewards" are punctiation marks that, like a white streak in a blue sky, interrupt the stream of experience and, through activation of many brain structures, facilitate the establishment of assosiations. ibid. 21
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While you slumber, your brain puts the world in order

Bob Stickgold from Harvard Medical School and his colleagues found that people were better able to recall lists of related words after a night's sleep than after the same time spent awake during the day. They also found it easier to recollect themes that the words had in common - forgetting around 25 per cent more themes after a waking rest. "We're not just stabilising memories during sleep," says Stickgold. "We're extracting the meaning."
Read more... )


also relates to http://watertank.livejournal.com/663559.html
What I find necessary for efficient "unconcious" brainwork is arming your mind with the right set of euristic tools. Then it somehow figures out which tools to use at the right time. Just "sleeping on it" works only for relatively simple problems.

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